A sculpture is a three-dimensional, human-made object selected
for special recognition as art.
The historic materials for sculpture
Throughout history the purpose of creating sculpture has
been to produce works of art that are as permanent as is possible,
so to that end works were usually produced in durable and
frequently expensive materials, primarily bronze and stone
such as marble, limestone, porphyry, and granite. More rarely
precious materials such as gold, silver, jade, and ivory were
used for chryselephantine works. More common and less expensive
materials were used for sculpture for wider consumption, including
woods such as oak, box and lime; terracotta and other ceramics
and cast metals such as pewter and spelter.
Sculptors often built small preliminary works called maquettes
of ephemeral materials such as plaster of paris, wax, clay
and even plasticine, as Alfred Gilbert did for 'Eros' at Piccadilly
Circus, London.
Contemporary materials
Most traditional sculpture materials are still in wide use
today. However, advancements in technology and changes have
broadened the range of materials sculptors can choose to use,
including glass and sand, aluminum, polymers and many other
synthetic materials, and liquid crystals.
It is common for film sculptors to carve large statuary from
blocks of polystyrene: although not particularly durable,
it is light and can be cut easily using a hot wire.
One way to make the film sculpture extremely durable is to
cover it with a slurry of portland cement and acrylic. The
next durability level is gained through immersing course cloth
such a burlap in the slurry and applying that to the foam.
Coarse hessian cloth soaked in this slurry can be sculpted
with wood files later. Areas requiring additional material
can be filled with a plaster made from the slurry and short
fibers. This sculptural material is explained in detail using
small roofs (See http://www.ferrocement.com/bioFiber/y5-roofLabContents.en.html
for additional information).
One should realize that the foam is not mandatory underneath,
a wad of newspaper or crushed cardboard works also. To examine
a welded steel version which has the foam inserted as the
last step http://ferrocement.com/products/fountain.01.html
Some sculptures are multimedia, for example sound sculptures
which, as their name implies, produce sound. Many artists
use video and computers in their sculptures as well. Computers
and motors can also be used in sculptures, leading to works
that may be classified as robotic. Some sculptors are using
3D modeling software and rapid prototyping systems to realize
sculptural form in plastic polymers. Sculptors are also using
CNC mills to mill out stone and clay in creating works that
can be visualized virtually and manifested physically.
Sculptors are constantly searching for new ways to make art
and for new materials to make it with, including blood, feces,
dead animals. See also body fluids in art. Andy Goldsworthy
is notable as a sculptor for his use of almost entirely natural
materials in natural settings and for creating sculptures
much more ephemeral than is typical. Jim Gary used automobile
parts, tools, machine parts, and hardware in many of his sculptures
as well as stained glass. Pablo Picasso used bicycle parts
for one of his most famous sculptures.
In his late writings, Joan Miró even proposed that
some day sculptures might be made of gases; see gas sculpture.
Sculpture around the world
Asian Many different forms of sculpture were in use in the many different regions of Asia, often based around the religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. A great deal of Cambodian Hindu sculpture is preserved at Angkor, however organized looting has had a heavy impact on many sites around the country. Also see Angkor Wat. In Thailand, sculpture was almost exclusively of Buddha images. Many Thai sculptures or temples are gilded, and on occasion enriched with inlays. See also Thai art
India
The first sculptures in India date back to the Indus Valley
civilization, where stone and bronze carvings have been discovered.
This is one of the earliest instances of sculpture in the
world. Later, as Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism developed
further, India produced some of the most intricate bronzes
in the world, as well as unriveled temple carvings. Some huge
shrines, such as the one at Ellora were not actually constructed
using blocks, but instead carved out of solid rock, making
them perhaps the largest and most intricate sculptures in
the world.
During the 2nd to 1st century BCE in far northern India,
in what is now southern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan,
sculptures became more explicit, representing episodes of
the Buddha’s life and teachings. Although India had a
long sculptural tradition and a mastery of rich iconography,
the Buddha was never represented in human form before this
time, but only through some of his symbols. This may be because
Gandharan Buddhist sculpture in modern Afghanistan displays
Greek and Persian artistic influence. Artistically, the Gandharan
school of sculpture is said to have contributed wavy hair,
drapery covering both shoulders, shoes and sandals, acanthus
leaf decorations, etc.
The pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved during the
Gupta period (4th to 6th century) to reach a very high fineness
of execution and delicacy in the modeling. Newer sculptures
in Afghanistan, in stucco, schist or clay, display very strong
blending of Indian post-Gupta mannerism and Classical influence,
Hellenistic or possibly even Greco-Roman. Meanwhile, elsewhere
in India, less anotomically accurate styles of human representation
evolved, leading to the classical art that the world is now
familiar with, and contributing to Buddhist and Hindu sculpture
throughout asia.
China
Chinese artifacts date back as early as 10,000 BC -- and skilled,Chinese
artisans have been active up to the present time -- but the
bulk of what is displayed as sculpture in Euro-culture museums
come from a few, select, historical periods. The first period
of interest has been the Zhou Dynasty (1050-771 BC), from
which come a variety of intricate cast bronze vessels. The
next period of interest was the Han Dynasty ( 206 BC - 220
AD) -- beginning with the spectacular Terracotta army assembled
for the tomb of the first emperor of the very brief Chin dynasty
that preceded it. (Qin Shi Huang) in 210–209 BC.) Tombs excavated
from the Han period have revealed many figures found to be
vigorous, direct, and appealing 2000 years later. The period
now considered to be China's golden age is the Tang Dynasty.
(coinciding with what in Europe is sometimes called "The Dark
Ages". Decorative figures like those shown below became very
popular in 20th Century Euro-American culture, and were made
available in bulk as warlords in the Chinese civil wars exported
them to raise cash. Considered especially desirable, and even
profound, was the Buddhist sculpture, often monumental, begun
in the Sui Dynasty, inspired by the Indian art of the Gupta
period, and many are considered treasures of world art. Following
the Tang, Western interest in Chinese artifacts drops off
dramatically, except for might be considered ornamental furnishings,
and especially objects in jade. Pottery from many periods
have been collected, and again the Tang period stands out
apart for its free, easy feeling. Chinese sculpture has no
nudes --other perhaps than figures made for medical training
or practice -- and very little portraiture compared with the
European tradition. One place where sculptural portraiture
was pursued, however, was in the monasteries. Almost nothing,
other than jewelry, jade, or pottery is collected by art museums
after the Ming Dynasty ended in the late 17th century -- and
absolutely nothing has yet been recognized as sculpture from
the tumultuous 20th century, although there was a school of
Soviet-influenced social realist sculpture in the early decades
of the Communist regime, and as the century turned, Chinese
craftsmen began to dominate commercial sculpture genres (the
collector plates, figurines, toys, etc) and avant garde Chinese
artists began to participate in the Euro-American enterprise
of contemporary art.
Japan
Countless paints and sculpture were made, often under governmental
sponsorship. Most Japanese sculpture is associated with religion,
and the medium's use declined with the lessening importance
of traditional Buddhism. During the Kofun period of the third
century, clay sculptures called haniwa were erected outside
tombs. Inside the Kondo at Horyu-ji is a Shaka Trinity (623),
the historical Buddha flanked by two bodhisattvas and also
the Guardian Kings of the Four Directions The wooden image
( 9th c.) of Shakyamuni, the "historic" Buddha, enshrined
in a secondary building at the Muro-ji, is typical of the
early Heian sculpture, with its ponderous body, covered by
thick drapery folds carved in the hompa-shiki (rolling-wave)
style, and its austere, withdrawn facial expression. The Kei
school of sculptors, particularly Unkei, created a new, more
realistic style of sculpture.
Africa
African art has an emphasis on Sculpture - African artists
tend to favor three-dimensional artworks over two-dimensional
works. The earliest known sculptures are from the Nok culture
of Nigeria, made around 500 BC. Probably the most famously
portayed are the "shrunken heads of enemies"!
Egypt
The ancient art of Egyptian sculpture evolved to represent
the ancient Egyptian gods, and Pharaohs, the divine kings
and queens, in physical form. Very strict conventions were
followed while crafting statues: male statues were darker
than the female ones; in seated statues, hands were required
to be placed on knees and specific rules governed appearance
of every Egyptian god. Artistic works were ranked according
to exact compliance with all the conventions, and the conventions
were followed so strictly that over three thousand years,
very little changed in the appearance of statutes.
United States
The history of sculpture in the United States reflects the
country's 18th century foundation in Roman republican civic
values as well as Protestant Christianity. American sculpture
of the mid to late 19th century was often classical, often
romantic, but showed a special bent for a dramatic, narrative,
almost journalistic realism. Public buildings of the first
half of the 20th century often provided an architectural setting
for sculpture, especially in relief. In the 1950s traditional
sculpture education would almost be completely replaced by
a Bauhaus influenced concern for abstract design. Minimalist
sculpture often replaced the figure in public settings. Modern
sculptors use both classical and abstract inspired designs.
Beginning in the 1980s there was a swing back towards figurative
public sculpture and by the year 2000 many of the new public
pieces in the United States were figurative in design.
Europe
An overview of forms
Some common forms of sculpture are:
* The bust, a representation of a person from the chest
up.
* Equestrian sculpture, typically showing a significant person
on horseback.
* Free-standing sculpture, sculpture that is surrounded on
all sides, except the base, by space. it is also known as
sculpture "in the round."
* Fountain, in which the sculpture is designed with moving
water.
* "In the round": designed by the sculptor to be
viewed from any angle.
* Jewellery
* Mobile (See also Calder's Stabiles.)
* Relief: sculpture still attached to a background, standing
out from that ground in "High Relief" or "Low
Relief" (bas relief)
* Site-Specific Art
* Statue
Perhaps the majority of public art is sculpture. See also
sculpture garden.
Greek-Roman-classical Features unique to the European
Classical tradition:
1. full figures: using the young, athletic male or full-bodied
female nude
2. portraits: showing signs of age and strong character
3. use of classical costume and attributes of classical deities
4. Concern for naturalism based on observation, often from
live models.
Features that the European Classical tradition shares with
many others:
1. characters present an attitude of distance and inner
contentment
2. details do not disrupt a sense of rhythm between solid
volumes and the spaces that surround them
3. pieces feel solid and larger than they really are
4. ambient space feels sacred or timeless
The topic of Nudity A Nude or 'unadorned' figure in
Greek classical sculpture was a reference to the status or
role of the depicted person, deity or other being. Athletes,
priestesses and gods could be identified by their adornment
or lack of it.
The Renaissance preoccupation with Greek classical imagery,
such as the 4th century B.C. Doryphoros of Polykleitos, led
to nude figurative statues being seen as the 'perfect form'
of representation for the human body. Subsequently, nudity
in sculpture and painting has represented a form of ideal,
be it innocence, openness or purity. Nude sculptures are still
common. As in painting, they are often made as exercises in
efforts to understand the anatomical structure of the human
body and develop skills that will provide a foundation for
making clothed figurative work.
Nude statues are usually widely accepted by most societies,
largely due to the length of tradition that supports this
form. Occasionally, the nude form draws objections, often
by fundamentalist moral or religious groups. Classic examples
of this are the removal of penises from the Vatican collection
of Greek sculpture and the addition of a fig leaf to a plaster
cast of Michelangelo's sculpture of David for Queen Victoria's
visit to the British Museum.
The topic of social status Worldwide, sculptors are
usually tradesmen whose work is unsigned. But in the Classical
tradition, some sculptors began to receive individual recognition
in Periclean Athens and more so in the Renaissance revival
2000 years later, culminating in the career of Michelangelo
who entered the circle of princes. Sculpture was still a trade,
but exceptional sculptors were recognized on a level with
exceptional poets and painters. In the 19th century, sculpture
also became a bourgeois/upper class avocation, as poetry and
painting had been, and the classical work of women sculptors
began to appear.
Gothic
Gothic sculpture evolved from the early stiff and elongated
style, still partly Romanesque, into a spatial and naturalistic
feel in the late 12th and early 13th century. The architectural
statues at the Western (Royal) Portal at Chartres Cathedral
(ca. 1145) are the earliest Gothic sculptures and were a revolution
in style and the model for a generation of sculptors. Prior
to this there had been no sculpture tradition in Ile-de-France—so
sculptors were brought in from Burgundy. The Bamberg Cathedral
had the largest assemblage of 13th century sculpture. In England
sculpture was more confined to tombs and non-figurine decorations.
In Italy there was still a Classical influence, but Gothic
made inroads in the sculptures of pulpits such as the Pisa
Baptistery pulpit (1269) and the Siena pulpit. Dutch-Burgundian
sculptor Claus Sluter and the taste for naturalism signaled
the beginning of the end of Gothic sculpture, evolving into
the classicistic Renaissance style by the end of the 15th
century.
Renaissance Sculpture was also revived, in many cases
before the other arts. There was a very obvious naturalism
about contemporary sculpture, and highly true to life figures
were being sculpted. One of the most important sculptors in
the classical revival was Donatello. His greatest achievement
of his classic period is the bronze David (not to be confused
with Michelangelo's David), which is currently located at
the Bargello in Florence. At the time of its creation, it
was the first free-standing nude statue since ancient times.
Conceived fully in the round and independent of any architectural
surroundings, it was the first major work of Renaissance sculpture.
Among the many sculptures of Michelangelo are those of David
and the Pietà, as well as the Doni Virgin, Bacchus,
Moses, Rachel, Leah, and members of the Medici family. Michelangelo's
David is possibly the most famous sculpture in the world,
which was unveiled on September 8, 1504. It is an example
of the contrapposto style of posing the human figure. Michelangelo's
statue of David differs from previous representations of the
subject in that David is depicted before his battle with Goliath
and not after the giant's defeat. Instead of being shown victorious
over a foe much larger than he, David looks tense and ready
for combat.
Mannerist Benvenuto Cellini created a salt cellar of
gold and ebony in 1540 featuring Neptune and Amphitrite (earth
and water) in elongated form and uncomfortable positions.
It is considered a masterpiece of Mannerist sculpture.
Baroque In Baroque sculpture, groups of figures assumed
new importance, and there was a dynamic movement and energy
of human forms— they spiralled around an empty central
vortex, or reached outwards into the surrounding space. For
the first time, Baroque sculpture often had multiple ideal
viewing angles. The characteristic Baroque sculpture added
extra-sculptural elements, for example, concealed lighting,
or water fountains. Bernini was undoubtedly the most important
sculptor of the Baroque period. His first works were inspired
by Hellenistic sculpture of ancient Greece and imperial Rome
he could study in the new seat. One of his most famous works
is Ecstasy of St Theresa
Neo-Classical The sculpture examples they actually
embraced were more likely to be Roman copies of Hellenistic
sculptures. In sculpture, the most familiar representatives
are the Italian Antonio Canova, the Englishman John Flaxman
and the Dane Bertel Thorvaldsen.
Modernism Modern Classicism contrasted in many ways
with the classical sculpture of the 19th Century which was
was characterized by commitments to naturalism (Antoine-Louis
Barye) -- the melodramatic (François Rude) sentimentality
(Jean Baptiste Carpeaux)-- or a kind of stately grandiosity
(Lord Leighton) Several different directions in the classical
tradition were taken as the century turned, but the study
of the live model and the post-Renaissance tradition was still
fundamental to them.
Auguste Rodin was the most renowned European sculptor of
the early 20th century. He might be considered as sui generis
-- that is, if anyone successfully composed in his turbulent,
virtuosic style, they have yet to be discovered. But he is
often considered a sculptural Impressionist, like Medardo
Rosso, Count Troubetski, and Rik Wouters, attempting to frame
the charm of a fleeting moment of daily life.
Modern Classicism showed a lesser interest in naturalism
and a greater interest in formal stylization. Greater attention
was paid to the rhythms of volumes and spaces - as well as
greater attention to the contrasting qualities of surface
(open, closed, planar, broken etc) while less attention was
paid to story-telling and convincing details of anatomy or
costume. Greater attention was given to psychological realism
than to physical realism. Greater attention was given to showing
what was eternal and public, rather than what was momentary
and private. Greater attention was given to examples of ancient
and Medieval sacred arts:Egyptian, Middle Eastern, Asian,
African, and Meso-American. Grandiosity was still a concern,
but in a broader, more world-wide context.
Early masters of modern classicism included: Aristide Maillol,
Alexander Matveev, Joseph Bernard, Antoine Bourdelle, Georg
Kolbe, Libero Andreotti, Gustav Vigeland, Jan Stursa
As the century progressed, modern classicism was adopted
as the national style of the two great European totalitarian
empires: Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia, who co-opted the
work of early masters, like Kolbe and Arno Breker in Germany,
and Matveev in Russia. Nazi Germany had a 15-year run; but
over the 70 years of the USSR, new generations of sculptors
were trained and chosen within their system, and a distinct
style, socialist realism, developed, that returned to the
19th century's emphasis on melodrama and naturalism.
In the rest of Europe, the modern classical became either
more decorative/art deco (Paul Manship, Carl Milles) or more
abstractly stylized (Henry Moore, Alberto Giacometti,Julio
González (sculptor)) or more expressive (and Gothic)
(Anton Hanak, Wilhelm Lehmbruck, Ernst Barlach, Arturo Martini)
-- or turned more to the Renaissance (Giacomo Manzu, Venanzo
Crocetti) or stayed the same (Charles Despiau, Marcel Gimond).
Classical training was rooted out of art education in Western
Europe (and the Americas) by 1970 and the classical variants
of the 20th Century were marginalized in the history of modernism.
But classicism continued as the foundation of art education
in the Soviet academies until 1990, providing a foundation
for expressive figurative art throughout eastern Europe and
parts of the Middle East.
By the year 2000, the European classical tradition maintains
a wide appeal to viewers -especially tourists - and especially
for the ancient, Renaissance, Baroque, and 19th century periods
-- but awaits an educational tradition to revive its contemporary
development.
Modernist movements included Cubism, Futurism, Minimalism,
Installation art and Pop-Art.
Contemporary Sculpture genres
Some modern sculpture forms are now practiced outdoors, and
often in full view of spectators, thus giving them kinship
to performance art in the eyes of some. Ice sculpture is a
form of sculpture that uses ice as the raw material. Popular
in China, Japan, Canada, Sweden and Russia. Ice sculptures
feature decoratively in some cuisines, especially in Asia.
Kinetic sculptures are sculptures that are designed to move,
which include Mobiles. Snow sculptures are usually carved
out of a single block of snow about 6 to 15 feet on each side
and weighing about 20 - 30 tons. The snow is densely packed
into a form after having been produced by artificial means
or collected from the ground after a snowfall. Sound sculptures
take the form of indoor sound installations, outdoor installations
such as aeolian harps, automatons, or be more or less near
conventional musical instruments. Sound sculpture is often
site-specific. A Sand castle can be regarded as a sand sculpture.
Other arts which can be regarded as sculptures include:
