Drawing is a means of making an image, using any of a wide variety of tools and techniques. It generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool, or moving a tool across a surface. Common tools are graphite pencils, pen and ink, inked brushes, wax color pencils, crayons, charcoals, pastels, and markers. Digital tools which simulate the effects of these are also used. The main techniques used in drawing are: line drawing, hatching, crosshatching, random hatching, scribbling, stippling, and blending. An artist who excels in drawing is referred to as a draftsman or draughtsman.
Definitions Drawing is generally considered distinct
from painting, in which colored pigments are suspended in
a liquid medium and usually applied with a brush. Etching
is similar to drawing but differs in that the tool digs into
the surface, which is then used to make prints on a separate
surface. One standard for differentiating drawing from painting
is that it does not permit the artist to mix colors before
applying them; colors can only be blended on the drawing surface,
usually by overlaying one upon the other or by putting them
close enough together that the eye "mixes" them. These distinctions
are somewhat arbitrary and subject to change; some artists
refer to fully-rendered pastel and colored-pencil compositions
as "paintings", and in nineteenth century usage "drawing"
also encompassed the use of watercolors. In digital media,
"drawing" often refers to the use of vector-based graphics
programs, as distinguished from bitmap-based "painting" software,
but this distinction is not universal.
Media
The medium is the means by which ink, pigment, or color are
delivered onto the drawing surface. Most drawing media are
either dry (e.g. graphite, charcoal, pastel, Conté,
silverpoint), or water-based (marker, pen and ink). Watercolor
pencils can be used dry like ordinary pencil, then moistened
with a wet brush to get various painterly effects. Very rarely,
artists have drawn with (usually decoded) invisible ink.
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Materials
Paper comes in a variety of different sizes and qualities,
ranging from newspaper grade for practice up to high quality
and relatively expensive paper sometimes sold as individual
sheets. Papers can vary in texture, hue, acidity, and strength
when wet. Smooth paper is good for rendering fine detail,
but a more "toothy" paper will hold the drawing
material better. Thus a more coarse material is useful for
producing deeper contrast.
For pen and ink work, typing paper is often used for practice
drawings, but heavier paper holds up better. Bristol board
makes a hard surface that is especially good for ink or fine
detailed graphite drawing. Coldpressed watercolor paper is
sometimes favored for ink drawing due to its texture. Tracing
vellum is often used for experimenting on top of a pencil
drawing, prior to committing a technique to the final page.
Various tools are routinely used in the process of drawing.
These include a pencil sharpener, sandpaper, kneaded eraser,
blending stubs, and chamois. Other tools that sometimes prove
useful are tracing paper, a circle compass, ruler, frisket
film, fixative, and drafting tape. The use of an easel or
slanted table reduces the distorting effects of perspective.
Aspects of the drawing process
Applying media
Prior to working on an image, the artist will likely want
to gain an understanding of how the various media will work.
The different drawing implements can be tried on practice
sheets to see what type of pattern they create, and how to
apply the implement in order to produce varying tones. Line
drawing in sanguine by Leonardo da Vinci Enlarge Line drawing
in sanguine by Leonardo da Vinci The stroke of the drawing
implement can be used to control the appearance of the image.
Ink drawings typically use hatching, which consists of groups
of parallel lines. Cross-hatching uses hatching in two or
more different directions to create a darker tone. Broken
hatching, or lines with intermittent breaks, is used to form
lighter tones, and by controlling the density of the breaks
a graduation of tone can be achieved. Finally stippling, or
random placement of dots on a page, can also be used to produce
a texture or shade. Sketch drawings use similar techniques,
although with pencils and drawing sticks continuous variations
in tone can be achieved. For best results the lines in a sketch
are typically drawn to follow the contour curves of the surface,
thus producing a depth effect. When drawing hair, the lines
of the sketch follow the direction of the hair growth. Typically
a drawing will be filled in based on which hand the artist
favors. A right-handed artist will want to draw from left
to right in order to avoid smearing the image. Sometimes the
artist will want to leave a section of the image blank while
filling in the remainder of the picture. A frisket can be
used for this purpose. The shape of the area to be preserved
is cut out of the frisket, and the resulting shape is then
applied to the drawing surface. This will protect the surface
from receiving any stray marks before it is ready to be filled
in. Another method to preserve a section of the image is to
apply a spray-on fixative to the surface. This will hold loose
material more firmly to the sheet and prevent it from smearing.
However the fixative spray typically uses chemicals that can
negatively affect the respiratory system, so it should be
employed in a well-ventilated area such as outdoors.
Tone
Shading is the technique of varying the tonal values on the
paper to represent the shade of the material as well as the
placement of the shadows. Careful attention to reflected light,
shadows, and highlights can result in a very realistic rendition
of the image. Blending uses an implement to move the drawing
material on the paper so as to hide the original drawing strokes.
This can only be done when drawing with a material such as
graphite or charcoal that is not permanently attached once
applied. When shading and blending is needed, the artist can
employ a combination of a tortillon blending stump, chamois
or soft tissue, and a specialized putty-rubber eraser. The
chamois cloth in particular is useful for creating smooth
textures, and for removing material to lighten the tone. There
are a number of methods for producing texture in the picture.
In addition to choosing a suitable paper, the type of drawing
material and the drawing technique will result in different
textures. Texture can be made to appear more realistic when
it is draw next to a contrasting texture. Thus a coarse texture
placed next to a smoothly blended area will appear more notable.
A similar effect can be achieved by drawing different tones
in close proximity. A light edge next to a dark background
will stand out to the eye, and almost appear to float above
the surface. In most drawing mediums, but especially in ink,
realistic renditions of an object or structure avoid outlining
the form and features. Otherwise the image may resemble a
paint-by-numbers figure from a coloring book. Instead the
shape of the structure is portrayed almost entirely through
tones and shading, including contrast with the background.
Layout
Measuring the dimensions of a subject while blocking in the
drawing is an important step in producing a realistic rendition
of the actual subject. A straight drawing implement held horizontally
or vertically can be used to measure the angles of different
sides. These angles can be reproduced on the drawing surface
and then rechecked to make sure they are accurate. Another
form of measurement is to compare the relative sizes of different
parts of the subject with each other. A finger placed at a
point along the drawing implement can be used to compare that
dimension with other parts of the image. A proportional divider
can be used to scale a photograph up or down. A photograph
automatically shows a scene with correct perspective for the
location of the camera. It follows that an artist wishing
tp paint a picture of the scene with true perspective needs
only to draw an accurate copy of the photograph. If his painting
is to be of a different size from that of the photograph he
must accurately scale it up or down. This may easily be done
by using a proportional divider, sometimes called a Variscaler,
set to give the scaling ratio which is required to fit the
scene on to his painting support. A grid can be used to produce
a more accurate portrayal of a photograph. The image is subdivided
into equally spaced horizontal and vertical lines. A scaled
version of these lines is drawn lightly on the paper, and
the outlines of the significant features are copied onto the
drawing. A similar approach when using an easel is to mount
a small, heavy paper frame through which the artist can view
the scene. The image on the paper is then scaled in reference
to this frame. Anatomical drawing of the human muscles from
the Encyclopédie. Enlarge Anatomical drawing of the human
muscles from the Encyclopédie. When attempting to draw a complicated
shape such as a human figure, it is helpful at first to represent
the form with a set of primitive shapes. Almost any form can
be represented by some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder,
and cone. Once these basic shapes have been assembled into
a likeness, then the drawing can be refined into a more accurate
and polished form. The lines of the primitive shapes are removed
and replaced by the final likeness. A more refined art of
figure drawing relies upon the artist possessing a deep understanding
of anatomy and the human proportions. A trained artist is
familiar with the skeleton structure, joint location, muscle
placement, tendon movement, and how the different parts work
together during movement. This allows the artist to render
more natural poses that do not appear artificially stiff.
The artist is also familiar with how the proportions vary
depending on the age of the subject, particularly when drawing
a portrait.
Perspective
Linear perspective is a method of portraying objects on a
flat surface so that the dimensions shrink with distance.
The parallel, straight edges of any object, whether a building
or a table, will follow lines that eventually converge at
infinity. Typically this point of convergence will be along
the horizon, as buildings are built level with the flat surface.
When multiple structures are aligned with each other, such
as buildings along a street, the horizontal tops and bottoms
of the structures will all typically converge at a vanishing
point. Two point perspective drawing. Enlarge Two point perspective
drawing. When both the fronts and sides of a building are
drawn, then the parallel lines forming a side converge at
a second point along the horizon (which may be off the drawing
paper.) This is a "two-point perspective". Converging the
vertical lines to a point in the sky then produces a "three-point
perspective". Depth can also be portrayed by several techniques
in addition to the perspective approach above. Objects of
similar size should appear ever smaller the further they are
from the viewer. Thus the back wheel of a cart will appear
slightly smaller than the front wheel. Depth can be portrayed
through the use of texture. As the texture of an object gets
further away it becomes more compressed and busy, taking on
an entirely different character than if it was close. Depth
can also be portrayed by reducing the amount of contrast of
more distant objects, and also by making the colors more pale.
This will reproduce the effect of atmospheric haze, and cause
the eye to focus primarily on objects drawn in the foreground.
Artistry
The composition of the image is an important element in producing
an interesting work of artistic merit. The artist plans the
placement of elements in the art in order to communicate ideas
and feelings with the viewer. The composition can determine
the focus of the art, and result in a harmonious whole that
is aesthetically appealing and stimulating. The illumination
of the subject is also a key element in creating an artistic
piece, and the interplay of light and shadow is a valuable
method in the artist's toolbox. The placement of the light
sources can make a considerable difference in the type of
message that is being presented. Multiple light sources can
wash out any wrinkles in a person's face, for instance, and
give a more youthful appearance. In contrast, a single light
source, such as harsh daylight, can serve to highlight any
texture or interesting features. When drawing an object or
figure, the skilled artist pays attention to both the area
within the silhouette and what lies outside. The exterior
is termed the negative space, and can be as important in the
representation as the figure. Objects placed in the background
of the figure should appear properly placed wherever they
can be viewed. A study is a draft drawing that is made in
preparation for a planned final image. Studies can be used
to determine the appearance of specific parts of the completed
image, or for experimenting with the best approach for accomplishing
the end goal. However a well-crafted study can be a piece
of art onto itself, and many hours of careful work can go
into completing a study.
History
People have made drawings since prehistoric times. This art
form first gained widespread popularity among European artists
during the 1400's, when paper became generally available.
Since that time, each century has produced artists who have
created great drawings. Masters of drawing in the 1400's and
1500's included Leonardo da Vinci, Albrecht Dürer, Michelangelo,
and Raphael. During the 1600's, Claude, Nicolas Poussin, Rembrandt,
and Peter Paul Rubens created important drawings. In the 1700's,
great drawings were produced by Jean-Honoré Fragonard, Francisco
Goya, Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, and Antoine Watteau. The
masters of drawing during the 1800's included Paul Cézanne,
Jacques Louis David, Edgar Degas, Theodore Gericault, Jean
Ingres, Odilon Redon, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, and Vincent
Van Gogh. Great drawings in the 1900's have been created by
Max Beckmann, Willem De Kooning, Jean Dubuffet, Arshile Gorky,
Paul Klee, Oscar Kokoschka, Jules Pascin, Pablo Picasso, and
Jackson Pollock.
